Perception & Individual Decision Making (pg. 33-37)
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| Perception | is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. | |
| Factors that influence perception | Perceiver, Target, Situation | |
| Perceiver | When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she see, that interpretation is heavily influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual power. Ex:police officers to be authoritative, regardless of their actual traits. | |
| Target | Characteristics of the target we observe can affect what we perceive. Ex:Loud people in group tend to be noticed, rather than quiet ones. Relationship of a target to its background also influences perception, as does our tendency to group close things and similar things together. | |
| Situation | The context in which we see objects, or events. The time at which we see an object or event can influence attention, location, light, or number of situational factors. Ex:Seeing a person from class at a club. Two different situations, but still the same person. | |
| Attribution Theory | suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. | |
| Internally caused behavior | are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. | |
| Example of Externally caused behavior | Ex:Employee arrives late due to a car accident, this is external attribution. | |
| Example of Internally caused behavior | Ex: If one of your employee's is late to work, you might attribuite his lateness to his partying into the wee hours of the morning and then oversleeping. | |
| 3 Factors that determine internal & external behavior | Distinctiveness, Consensus, Consistency. | |
| Distinctiveness | (3 factors that determine i&e behavior) refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. We want to know if behavior is unusual. If it is, then we might think the problem is external, if it's not unusual it will probably be judged as internal. How would you distinguish the behavior? why? | |
| Consensus | (3 factors that determine i&e behavior) If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior shows consensus. If consensus is high (all employees late who take same route) then you could assume an external attribution, whereas if other employee's who took same route got to work on time, you could assume an internal attribution. | |
| Consistency | (3 factors that determine i&e behavior)Does the person respond the same way over time? The more consistant the behavior, the more the observer is incline to attribuite it to internal causes. | |
| What is the fundamental attribution error? | When we make judgements about the behavior of other people, and we underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence or personal factors. Ex:if a manager attributes poor performance of her sales agents due to laziness, rather than to the innovative product introduced by a competitor. | |
| What is self-serving bias? | individual's and organizations tendency to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive coworkers. | |
| Frequently used shortcuts in Judging Others | Selective Perception, Halo Effect, Contrast Effects, Stereotyping | |
| Selective Perception | (shortcut in judging others) Any characteristic that makes a person, an object, or an event stand out will increase the probability that we will perceive it. Ex: our tendency to notice cars that look like ours, or why bosses reprimand some people and not others who are doing the same thing. We see what we want to see, we can draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation. | |
| Halo Effect | (shortcut in judging others) When we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance, a halo effect is operating. | |
| Contrast Effects | (shortcut in judging others)contrast effects can distort perceptions. Reaction to a person is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered. Ex:a candidate is likely to to receive a more favorable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants and a less favorable evaluation if preceded by strong applicants. | |
| Stereotyping | (shortcut in judging others)When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using the shortcut stereotyping. | |
| Decisions | a choice made from among two or more alternatives. | |
| Problem | a discrepancy exists between the current state of affairs and some desired state, requiring us to consider alternative courses of action. Ex:care breaks down,you rely on it to get to work, you have a problem that requires a decision on your part. | |
| Every decision requires us to ____&___ information | interpret & evaluate | |
| Rational | consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints. | |
| 6 steps of the rational decision-making model | 1)Define the problem 2)Identify the decision criteria 3)Allocate weights to the criteria 4)Develop the alternatives 5)Evaluate the alternatives 6)Select the best alternative. | |
| Rational decision-making model relies on... | a number of assumptions, including that the decision maker has complete information, is able to identify all the relevant options in an unbiased manner, and chooses the option with the highest utility. Most decisions in the real world don't follow the rational model. |
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