Development
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| rhodopsin | rods, extremely sensitive to light, do not distinguish color | |
| iodopsin | cones, requires bright light to function. 3 types allow cones to respond to different wavelengths | |
| receptive fields in cones | small, few cones attach to each ganglion cell, in the fovea each cone has its own ganglion cell | |
| fovea | center, cones are most numerous here. rods are absent here | |
| receptive fields in rods | large, many rods share each ganglion cell, enhances sensitivity to light but reduces acuity | |
| retinal | protein in rhodopsin activated by light | |
| leber's congenital optic degeneration | RPE65 is defective; photoreceptors degenerate, and the patient goes blind. Stem cells have cured this disease | |
| lateral inhibition | connected bipolar cells - inhibiting one's neighbors produces contrast | |
| primary visual cortex | V1 - in occipital cortex - where most visual information first arrives | |
| simple cortical cells | also called bar or edge detectors - respond to an edge or bar of a particular width, orientation, and location | |
| complex cortical cells | also respond to a bar of a particular width and orientation, but may be located anywhere in the visual field | |
| form vision spatial frequency theory | visual cortical cells do a frequency analysis of the luminosity variations in a scene. Different visual cortical cells have different sensitivities, not just those required to detect edges. As a result, visual cortical cells can detect not just edges but grades of luminosity change | |
| V1 | primary visual cortex - perceived objects and is necessary in forming mental images | |
| V2, V4, and the inferior temporal lobe | perceive complex form | |
| V5 | specialized for motion perception | |
| V4 | respond to concentric and radial stimuli. Also involved in color perception | |
| akinetopsia | motion blindess, problem with V5 | |
| M channel | magnocellular pathway - orientation selective, directional sensitive for movement, no color sensitivity - analysis of object motion | |
| P-IB channel | parvocellular interblob pathway - high orientation sensitivity, no color sensitivity, small receptive fields - analysis of object shape | |
| blob channel | parvocellular blob and kiniocellular pathway - no orientation sensitivity, color sensitivity - analysis of object color | |
| inferotemporal cortex | respond to complex forms, including forms we have learned to recognize | |
| ocular dominance column | region of cortex with greater synaptic input from one eye | |
| trichromatic hypothesis | three types of cones, each responds to a part of the spectrum, each has a separate pathway to the brain | |
| opponent-process hypothesis | three color axes (opposed pairs of colors) | |
| afterimage | cells in the retinal ganglion and thalamic parvocellular layers fire to some wavelengths, and are inhibited by others | |
| synesthesia | activation of V4 and fusiform gyrus by spoken words | |
| simultagnosia | inability to attend to more than a very limited area of the visual field despite normal visual fields | |
| palinopsia | patients see afterimages, both as a reduced amount of time required to form an afterimage, and an increased duration of the afterimage. | |
| blindsight | minor pathways into extrastriate cortex that bypass V1 (maybe). a phenomenon in which patients with damage to primary visual cortex can tell where an object is although they claim they cannot see it | |
| amblyopia treatment | prozac restores plasticity in the adult visual system | |
| paraphasia | substitution for a word by an incorrect or unintended word (spoonerism) | |
| dysphasia | any language disorder | |
| dysarthria | inability to speak clearly | |
| dyspraxia | inability to sequence a complex motor act | |
| dysgraphia | inability to write | |
| dyslexia | inability to read - disorder of both visual and auditory processing | |
| nonfluent aphasia | broca's aphasia - difficulty producing speech, good comprehension | |
| anomia | inability to name persons or objects | |
| fluent aphasia | wenicke's aphasia - complex verbal output with many paraphasias (word salad) | |
| arcuate fasciculus | axons connecting Wernicke's area to Broca's area. Lesions of these axons produce conduction aphasia | |
| angular gyrus | transfer of visual information, disconnection leads to patients able to speak and understand, but can't read aloud | |
| surface dyslexia | errors in reading, but restricted to the details and sounds of letters (pretty = prehtty) | |
| deep dyslexia | errors in reading one word as another, related in meaning (country = nation). extensive damage to left-hemisphere language areas | |
| micropolygyria | excessive cortical folding | |
| ectopias | clusters of extra cells | |
| FOXP2 | language gene - mutation of this gene results in reduced gray matter in Broca's area and other areas - | |
| dichotic listening | presents different sounds to each ear at different or the same time | |
| wada test | injection of amobarbital into carotid artery briefly sedates that hemisphere | |
| asymmetry in language | structural asymmetry of the human planum temporale, assymetry present by week 30 in gestation | |
| music perception | auditory areas of the right hemisphere | |
| pitch and simple tone perception | involve left hemisphere | |
| central sulcus | separates frontal lobes from rest of brain | |
| parts of frontal lobes | motor cortex, premotor cortex, prefrontal cortex | |
| symptoms of frontal lesions | perseverative errors, failures of planning; reduced pain reactivity, inappropriate social behavior, attention and memory problems, though little change in IQ score | |
| dorsolateral damage | poor judgement, motor programming problems, poor self-care | |
| orbitofrontal damage | environmental dependence, poor social insight, emotional lability | |
| parietal lobe | spatial perception - injuries produce diverse impairments - its position abuts all three other major lobes | |
| astereognosis | inability to recognize objects by touching and feeling them - mostly right hemisphere | |
| hemispatial neglect | damage to the right parietal lobe results in neglect of left side of body and of space | |
| prosopagnosia | fail to recognize familiar faces, even their own | |
| fusiform gyrus | bilateral damage here causes complete prosopagnosia | |
| agnosia | inability to identify items | |
| ossicles | malleus, incus, stapes, connect the tympanic membrane to the oval window | |
| tensor tympani | attached to malleus and tympanic membrane | |
| stapedius | attached to stapes | |
| tip links | thin fibers run accross each hair cell's stereocilia | |
| outer hair cells | amplifiers | |
| inner hair cells | transducers | |
| superior olivary nuclei | receive bilateral input | |
| inferior colliculi | send on to the medial geniculate nuclei in thalamus | |
| tonotopic organization | auditory neurons are organized based on the tone they respond to | |
| volley theory | firing rate of auditory neurons encodes pitch | |
| place theory | pitch is encoded by receptor location on basilar membrane | |
| superior olive | in mammals, the main sound localization nucleus | |
| dorsal stream | frontoparietal lobe, involved in spatial location | |
| ventral stream | temporal lobe, analyzes components of sound | |
| conduction deafness | disorders of the outer or middle ear that prevent sounds from reaching the cochlea | |
| sensorineural deafness | originates from cochlear or auditory nerve-lesions | |
| central deafness | hearing loss caused by brain lesions, with complex results. Associated with MS, tumors. | |
| Cortical deafness | pure word deafness, auditory agnosia | |
| pure word deafness | fluent verbal output, sever disturbance of spoken language comprehension | |
| causes of conductive hearing loss | middle ear - otitis media, TM perforation, ossicular fixation | |
| tinnitus | although damage to the cochlea causes hearing loss and often initiates tinnitus, CNS plays a key role in chronic tinnitus | |
| Moebius syndrome | can't make facial expression | |
| Bell's palsy | can't move half of face | |
| brain areas involved in emotion | oribitofrontal cortex, limbic system, brainstem | |
| brain stem areas | locus coeruleus(norepinephrine - emotional arousal, depresson/pleasure, stress), substantia nigra(dopamine, pleasure, exhiliration). | |
| oritofrontal cortex | inhibits raw emotion from amygdala | |
| limbic system areas | hypothalamus (ANS), amygdala(agression and fear, emotional memory), hippocampus(memory), congulate gyrus(pain processing) | |
| medial forebrain bundle | tract that rises from the midbrain through the hypothalamus - contains many sites for self-stimulation | |
| Amygdala | nvolved primarily in negative emotions; participates in memory formation, especially emotional ones | |
| Kluver-Bucy syndrome | removal of temporal lobes in monkeys has a taming effect | |
| insula | activated by disgust and guilt | |
| orbitofrontal cortex | activated by laughter | |
| anterior cingulate cortex | combines emotional, attentional, and body information in a conscious emotional experience | |
| panic disorder | temporal lobe volumes are lower in patients. small lesions in white matter and dilation of the lateral ventricls. increased activity of the parahippocampal gyrus and decreased activity of the anterior temporal cortex and amygdala, especially on the right side | |
| right caudate | ventral tegmental are - involved in drug craving - becomes very active in romatnic love | |
| amygdala damage | poor face recognition, especially expressiobn. poor memory of emotional material. understanding of fear intact, recognition impared | |
| left frontal area | more active during positive emotions | |
| right frontal are | more active during negative emotion. Autonomic response to emotional scenes are greater if presented to right hemisphere | |
| prefrontal cortex | final destination for much of the brain's information about emotion before action is taken. judges behavior and its consequences | |
| hormones released during stress | suppress the immune system | |
| stress immunization | mild stress dealt with successfully early in life makes it easier to handle stress later in life | |
| dyscontrol syndrome | temporal lobe disorders that underlie some violence - road rage | |
| sociopaths | incapable of remorse - they may commit very violent acts | |
| endocrine | released into bloodstream to act on target tissues | |
| protein and amine hormones | bind to specific receptorson the surface of a cell release a second messenger in the cell | |
| steroid hormones | pass through the cell membrane and bind to receptors inside the cell | |
| tropic hormones | pituitary hormones that affect other endocrine glands | |
| releasing hormones | from hypothalamus control pituitary's release of tropic hormones | |
| vasopressin | antidiuretic hormon(ADH) increases blood pressure and inhibits urine formation | |
| oxytocin | maternal behaviors | |
| hormone production by the posterior pituitary | stalk contains blood vessels and many axons, which only extend to the posterior pituitary | |
| secretions of the anterior pituitary | hypothalamic neurons synthesize releasing hormones. releasing hormones are secreted into local blood vessels. releasing hormones are carried to anterior pituitary, which releases hormones | |
| adrenal cortex | secretes steroid hormones | |
| adrenal meulla | releases epinephrine and norepinephrine | |
| goiter | swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck from iodine deficiency | |
| cretinism | early thyroid deficiency leads to mental retardation | |
| cushings disease | long-term excess glucocorticoids with fatigue and depression | |
| exogenous ingestion of hormone | most common cause of hormone excess - ie. glucocorticoid excess or anabolic steroid abuse |
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