Development

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rhodopsin rods, extremely sensitive to light, do not distinguish color  
iodopsin cones, requires bright light to function. 3 types allow cones to respond to different wavelengths  
receptive fields in cones small, few cones attach to each ganglion cell, in the fovea each cone has its own ganglion cell  
fovea center, cones are most numerous here. rods are absent here  
receptive fields in rods large, many rods share each ganglion cell, enhances sensitivity to light but reduces acuity  
retinal protein in rhodopsin activated by light  
leber's congenital optic degeneration RPE65 is defective; photoreceptors degenerate, and the patient goes blind. Stem cells have cured this disease  
lateral inhibition connected bipolar cells - inhibiting one's neighbors produces contrast  
primary visual cortex V1 - in occipital cortex - where most visual information first arrives  
simple cortical cells also called bar or edge detectors - respond to an edge or bar of a particular width, orientation, and location  
complex cortical cells also respond to a bar of a particular width and orientation, but may be located anywhere in the visual field  
form vision spatial frequency theory visual cortical cells do a frequency analysis of the luminosity variations in a scene. Different visual cortical cells have different sensitivities, not just those required to detect edges. As a result, visual cortical cells can detect not just edges but grades of luminosity change  
V1 primary visual cortex - perceived objects and is necessary in forming mental images  
V2, V4, and the inferior temporal lobe perceive complex form  
V5 specialized for motion perception  
V4 respond to concentric and radial stimuli. Also involved in color perception  
akinetopsia motion blindess, problem with V5  
M channel magnocellular pathway - orientation selective, directional sensitive for movement, no color sensitivity - analysis of object motion  
P-IB channel parvocellular interblob pathway - high orientation sensitivity, no color sensitivity, small receptive fields - analysis of object shape  
blob channel parvocellular blob and kiniocellular pathway - no orientation sensitivity, color sensitivity - analysis of object color  
inferotemporal cortex respond to complex forms, including forms we have learned to recognize  
ocular dominance column region of cortex with greater synaptic input from one eye  
trichromatic hypothesis three types of cones, each responds to a part of the spectrum, each has a separate pathway to the brain  
opponent-process hypothesis three color axes (opposed pairs of colors)  
afterimage cells in the retinal ganglion and thalamic parvocellular layers fire to some wavelengths, and are inhibited by others  
synesthesia activation of V4 and fusiform gyrus by spoken words  
simultagnosia inability to attend to more than a very limited area of the visual field despite normal visual fields  
palinopsia patients see afterimages, both as a reduced amount of time required to form an afterimage, and an increased duration of the afterimage.  
blindsight minor pathways into extrastriate cortex that bypass V1 (maybe). a phenomenon in which patients with damage to primary visual cortex can tell where an object is although they claim they cannot see it  
amblyopia treatment prozac restores plasticity in the adult visual system  
paraphasia substitution for a word by an incorrect or unintended word (spoonerism)  
dysphasia any language disorder  
dysarthria inability to speak clearly  
dyspraxia inability to sequence a complex motor act  
dysgraphia inability to write  
dyslexia inability to read - disorder of both visual and auditory processing  
nonfluent aphasia broca's aphasia - difficulty producing speech, good comprehension  
anomia inability to name persons or objects  
fluent aphasia wenicke's aphasia - complex verbal output with many paraphasias (word salad)  
arcuate fasciculus axons connecting Wernicke's area to Broca's area. Lesions of these axons produce conduction aphasia  
angular gyrus transfer of visual information, disconnection leads to patients able to speak and understand, but can't read aloud  
surface dyslexia errors in reading, but restricted to the details and sounds of letters (pretty = prehtty)  
deep dyslexia errors in reading one word as another, related in meaning (country = nation). extensive damage to left-hemisphere language areas  
micropolygyria excessive cortical folding  
ectopias clusters of extra cells  
FOXP2 language gene - mutation of this gene results in reduced gray matter in Broca's area and other areas -  
dichotic listening presents different sounds to each ear at different or the same time  
wada test injection of amobarbital into carotid artery briefly sedates that hemisphere  
asymmetry in language structural asymmetry of the human planum temporale, assymetry present by week 30 in gestation  
music perception auditory areas of the right hemisphere  
pitch and simple tone perception involve left hemisphere  
central sulcus separates frontal lobes from rest of brain  
parts of frontal lobes motor cortex, premotor cortex, prefrontal cortex  
symptoms of frontal lesions perseverative errors, failures of planning; reduced pain reactivity, inappropriate social behavior, attention and memory problems, though little change in IQ score  
dorsolateral damage poor judgement, motor programming problems, poor self-care  
orbitofrontal damage environmental dependence, poor social insight, emotional lability  
parietal lobe spatial perception - injuries produce diverse impairments - its position abuts all three other major lobes  
astereognosis inability to recognize objects by touching and feeling them - mostly right hemisphere  
hemispatial neglect damage to the right parietal lobe results in neglect of left side of body and of space  
prosopagnosia fail to recognize familiar faces, even their own  
fusiform gyrus bilateral damage here causes complete prosopagnosia  
agnosia inability to identify items  
ossicles malleus, incus, stapes, connect the tympanic membrane to the oval window  
tensor tympani attached to malleus and tympanic membrane  
stapedius attached to stapes  
tip links thin fibers run accross each hair cell's stereocilia  
outer hair cells amplifiers  
inner hair cells transducers  
superior olivary nuclei receive bilateral input  
inferior colliculi send on to the medial geniculate nuclei in thalamus  
tonotopic organization auditory neurons are organized based on the tone they respond to  
volley theory firing rate of auditory neurons encodes pitch  
place theory pitch is encoded by receptor location on basilar membrane  
superior olive in mammals, the main sound localization nucleus  
dorsal stream frontoparietal lobe, involved in spatial location  
ventral stream temporal lobe, analyzes components of sound  
conduction deafness disorders of the outer or middle ear that prevent sounds from reaching the cochlea  
sensorineural deafness originates from cochlear or auditory nerve-lesions  
central deafness hearing loss caused by brain lesions, with complex results. Associated with MS, tumors.  
Cortical deafness pure word deafness, auditory agnosia  
pure word deafness fluent verbal output, sever disturbance of spoken language comprehension  
causes of conductive hearing loss middle ear - otitis media, TM perforation, ossicular fixation  
tinnitus although damage to the cochlea causes hearing loss and often initiates tinnitus, CNS plays a key role in chronic tinnitus  
Moebius syndrome can't make facial expression  
Bell's palsy can't move half of face  
brain areas involved in emotion oribitofrontal cortex, limbic system, brainstem  
brain stem areas locus coeruleus(norepinephrine - emotional arousal, depresson/pleasure, stress), substantia nigra(dopamine, pleasure, exhiliration).  
oritofrontal cortex inhibits raw emotion from amygdala  
limbic system areas hypothalamus (ANS), amygdala(agression and fear, emotional memory), hippocampus(memory), congulate gyrus(pain processing)  
medial forebrain bundle tract that rises from the midbrain through the hypothalamus - contains many sites for self-stimulation  
Amygdala nvolved primarily in negative emotions; participates in memory formation, especially emotional ones  
Kluver-Bucy syndrome removal of temporal lobes in monkeys has a taming effect  
insula activated by disgust and guilt  
orbitofrontal cortex activated by laughter  
anterior cingulate cortex combines emotional, attentional, and body information in a conscious emotional experience  
panic disorder temporal lobe volumes are lower in patients. small lesions in white matter and dilation of the lateral ventricls. increased activity of the parahippocampal gyrus and decreased activity of the anterior temporal cortex and amygdala, especially on the right side  
right caudate ventral tegmental are - involved in drug craving - becomes very active in romatnic love  
amygdala damage poor face recognition, especially expressiobn. poor memory of emotional material. understanding of fear intact, recognition impared  
left frontal area more active during positive emotions  
right frontal are more active during negative emotion. Autonomic response to emotional scenes are greater if presented to right hemisphere  
prefrontal cortex final destination for much of the brain's information about emotion before action is taken. judges behavior and its consequences  
hormones released during stress suppress the immune system  
stress immunization mild stress dealt with successfully early in life makes it easier to handle stress later in life  
dyscontrol syndrome temporal lobe disorders that underlie some violence - road rage  
sociopaths incapable of remorse - they may commit very violent acts  
endocrine released into bloodstream to act on target tissues  
protein and amine hormones bind to specific receptorson the surface of a cell release a second messenger in the cell  
steroid hormones pass through the cell membrane and bind to receptors inside the cell  
tropic hormones pituitary hormones that affect other endocrine glands  
releasing hormones from hypothalamus control pituitary's release of tropic hormones  
vasopressin antidiuretic hormon(ADH) increases blood pressure and inhibits urine formation  
oxytocin maternal behaviors  
hormone production by the posterior pituitary stalk contains blood vessels and many axons, which only extend to the posterior pituitary  
secretions of the anterior pituitary hypothalamic neurons synthesize releasing hormones. releasing hormones are secreted into local blood vessels. releasing hormones are carried to anterior pituitary, which releases hormones  
adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones  
adrenal meulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine  
goiter swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck from iodine deficiency  
cretinism early thyroid deficiency leads to mental retardation  
cushings disease long-term excess glucocorticoids with fatigue and depression  
exogenous ingestion of hormone most common cause of hormone excess - ie. glucocorticoid excess or anabolic steroid abuse  

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